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Weaponry Guochanhua in 1996-2001
In 1996, China started a new cycle of military modernization. Already by 1999 (as was clearly demonstrated in the Beijing military parade on Oct. 1, 1999), the PLA had acquired much new weaponry - both purchased in Russia or Chinese-made or, more exactly, based on Russian technology and manufactured with the use of Russian kits and spare parts.
PLA modernization in 2000-2001 was characterized by the broad introduction of "Chinese" weapons and dual-use products, with significant use of Russian (as well as Ukrainian and Belarusian) parts. Only the most important products of this kind are listed below:
J-11 (improved copy of SU-27 SK) fighter, assembled at the Shenyang Aircraft Corp.; by the end of 2001, only engines, radars and some other avionics came from Russia.
J-10 and FC-1 fighters, prepared by late 2001 for serial production at Chengdu Aircraft Corp. Both use Russian engines and radars.
FBC-1 (Flying Leopard) fighter-bomber, assembled at the Xian Aircraft Corp.; uses engines from Rolls Royce Corp. in the UK (the Russian side couldn't provide engines of the necessary level).
Solid-fuel, road-mobile DF-31 ICBM and its submarine-launch variety, the JL-II, prepared by early 2002 for serial production in Sichuan province. This ICBM is based on Soviet technology and evidently uses some Russian and Belarusian components.
In November 1999 and February 2001, China launched a manned spacecraft prototype, Shenzhou, with a LM (Long March)-F2 missile booster. Both are based on Russian technology and use some Russian-made modules.
Hongniao (HN)-series long range land-attack cruise missiles, whose production was mastered in 1998-2001 in Langfang city, near Beijing, with the use of Russian technology and components.
Improved Song and "Super-Kilo" diesel-electric submarines, which came to the PLA navy in 1999-2001, use a great amount of Russian Kilo-type submarine high-tech and components.
The Luhai-class missile destroyer, the best of Chinese-made naval vessels, uses Ukrainian engines and evidently some technology of Russia's Sovremenny-class destroyer.
The "093" class nuclear attack submarine and "094" class strategic submarine, presently under production in Huludao, Liaoning province, are entirely based on Russian technology and use key Russian-made components.
The FT-2000 long-range anti-radar air-defense missile (ADM), serially produced in 2000-2001, is almost a copy of Russia's S-300 ADM. Besides, by late 2001, the Chinese-made "slightly improved copies" of Russia's S-300 PMU-1 long-range ADM, Tor-M1 medium-range ADM, and short-range Tunguska air-defense missile-artillery system, were mastered in serial production or close to this stage. And all of them used some Russian components.
The type-98 tank and other mobile weapons for ground troops are based on "Russian technology, Ukrainian engines and Belarusian chassis" (according to Taiwanese sources).
Technological Breakthroughs of 2002
By early 2002, China had reached a new level of economic-technological development, significantly surpassing Russia's. This allowed China to accomplish several serious breakthroughs and approach "technological independence" in weaponry R&D and production. Only the major facts are given below:
In March 2002, aircraft industry enterprises in Zhuzhou, Hunan province, completed development of the first Chinese turbofan engine, to be used in the K-8 fighter-trainer (earlier it used Ukrainian turbofan engines). And in May 2002, Shenyang Jet Engine Research Institute concluded development of the much more advanced "Kunlun" turbofan engine.
According to a description, this is evidently an improved copy of Russia's AL-31 turbofan engine, used with some varieties of the aforementioned SU-27, SU-30, J-11 and J-10 fighters. China's domestic share of the components (the "guochanhua level") in the J-10 and J-11 fighters thus automatically rose from 70 percent or 75 percent to 90 percent or more. This, in practice, means technological independence in manufacturing fourth-generation fighters, at a comparatively low cost.
In late March 2002, China successfully launched the unmanned Shenzhou-3 spacecraft, much more advanced than the aforementioned Shenzhou-1 and the Shenzhou-2. According to several reports in the Chinese media, this time the Shenzhou spacecraft and its LM-F2 missile booster were made entirely or almost entirely of Chinese components.
China acquired technological independence in R&D and manufacturing of large spacecraft and missile boosters for them. And this opens the way for Chinese space station construction.
According to statements of Chinese nuclear industry experts, by March 2002 this industry mastered the technology for making 600-megawatt thermal nuclear power generating sets and became capable of designing and manufacturing 1000-megawatt thermal nuclear power generators. This means that China's lag behind the Russian and, generally, the world nuclear industry has fallen to a minimum. That's for both civilian and military products.
In January-March 2002, one or two microelectronics enterprises in Shanghai began production of large-scale ICs with a minimal feature size of 0.18 micron (it is called 0.18-micron technology level; by the way, Russia has nothing of this kind). The same enterprises intend to master, within two years, the manufacturing of ultra-large-scale ICs of 0.13-micron technological level; this is currently the best level in world microelectronics.
What is probably even more important: Introduction of ultra-large-scale ICs greatly expands the combat abilities of any modern weapon system.
In short, China has approached technological independence in a broad range of weapon systems and dual-use products. This is a fact of ultimate importance.